Nordum Language Specification

1. Introduction

Nordum is a constructed pan-Scandinavian written language designed to maximize mutual intelligibility between Norwegian (Bokmål), Danish, and Swedish while maintaining systematic regularity and practical modern usage.

1.1 Core Philosophy

Nordum creates a balanced linguistic bridge that:

• Respects all three source languages equally without favoring any single tradition
• Accommodates regional pronunciation differences through alternative spellings
• Integrates modern practicality with English loanword preservation
• Maintains systematic regularity while supporting linguistic variation
• Provides transparency in all linguistic decision-making

1.2 Target Audience

• Native Speakers: Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish speakers seeking a shared written standard
• Language Learners: Students of Scandinavian languages
• Researchers: Linguists studying pan-regional constructed languages
• Developers: Building tools and applications for Scandinavian communication

2. Design Principles

2.1 Balanced Pan-Scandinavian Selection

Principle: Equal respect for all three source languages with strategic selection for optimal clarity.

Implementation:

• Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish contribute as equal partners
• Selection based on pan-Scandinavian intelligibility optimization
• No language treated as subordinate or “less important”
• Strategic decisions favor forms that work best across all three languages

Examples:

            arbeider (selected for majority agreement Norwegian/Danish on "d" form preferred over Swedish "arbetar" for verb consistency, "ei" over "ej" for [aj].)
            liten (selected for majority agreement and compatibility with comparative/superlative forms)
            høre (retained for pan-Scandinavian recognition; Swedish "höra" adapted via vowel alternatives)
            

2.2 Loanword Integration

Principle: Modern technical terms preserved unchanged following established Scandinavian practice.

Rule: Loanwords in technical, digital, and contemporary domains remain unmodified.

Examples from English:

            computer → computer (not datamaskin/dator)
            internet → internet
            email → email (not e-post/mejl)
            software → software (not programvare/mjukvara)
            website → website (not nettside/webbsida)
            app → app
            smartphone → smartphone
            browser → browser
            password → password
            check → check
            chocolate → chocolate
            social media → social media
            basketball → basketball
            

Examples from other languages:

            Schokolade → schokolade
            Doppelgänger → doppelgänger
            Zeitgeist → zeitgeist
            mosquito → mosquito
            patio → patio
            baguette → baguette
            

Rationale: Follows established Danish/Norwegian practice for technical terminology, making Nordum immediately practical for modern multilingual communication. Note that sometimes there are multiple possible ways of spelling a word depending on which loanword one chooses (e.g., “chocolate” vs. “schokolade”) or whether to use a word in native Nordum (“sjokolade”), but in all cases, the same rules of capitalization apply, even for proper nouns.

2.3 Systematic Morphological Distinctions

Principle: Each grammatical category has distinctive endings to prevent confusion and enable clear parsing.

Core System:

• Verbs (present): Always -er ending (except irregulars: er, har, går)
• Noun plurals: Usually -ar ending — invariant for common neuter nouns (hus, barn, øye, ben, år)
• Adjective comparatives: Usually -ere ending (except irregulars: god→bedre, liten→mindre)
• Adjective superlatives: Usually -est ending (except irregulars: god→bedst, liten→mindst)

Benefits:

• Immediate grammatical category identification
• No confusion between verbs and noun plurals
• Clear parsing for humans and machines
• Systematic learning patterns

2.4 Regular Number System

Principle: Use the most regular decimal system to eliminate complexity.

Implementation: Norwegian number system adopted for maximum regularity.

Numbers:

            50 → femti (not halvtreds/femtio)
            60 → seksti (not tres/sextio)
            70 → sytti (not halvfjerds/sjuttio)
            80 → åtti (not firs/åttio)
            90 → nitti (not halvfems/nittio)
            100 → hundre
            1000 → tusen
            

Rationale: Eliminates Danish vigesimal complexity while remaining clear to Swedish speakers.

2.5 Phonetic Transparency

Principle: Spelling should consistently reflect pronunciation with systematic sound-symbol correspondence.

Implementation:

• Eliminate silent letters where possible
• Clear question word patterns (v- without silent h)
• Systematic vowel representations
• Alternative spellings for pronunciation variants

3. Orthography and Phonology

3.1 Alphabet

Basic Latin: A-Z (26 letters) Scandinavian Extensions: Å or Aa (universal), plus alternative vowel systems:

• Primary: Æ, Ø (Norwegian/Danish pattern)
• Alternative: Ä, Ö (Swedish/German pattern) or Ae, Oe (International).

Policy: The choice of æ/ø, ä/ö, aa/ae/oe has no grammatical consequences — it is purely orthographic. Text books and official documents should use the primary vowel system. When keyboard layouts do not support these characters, they should be substituted with their primary counterparts.

3.2 Vowel System

3.2.1 Primary Vowels (Phonemic Representation)

Policy: The orthography represents phonemes (distinct sound units). The precise pronunciation (phonetic realization) of these phonemes varies by regional accent. All common regional variations are accepted and considered correct. For example, the phoneme /a/ can be pronounced as a back [ɑ] (Norwegian/Standard Swedish), a central [a] (Finnish Swedish), or a front [æ] (Danish).

3.2.2 Alternative Vowel Spellings (Swedish/German)

Policy: Both forms accepted as valid. Users may choose preferred system. No other grammatical or lexical elements change based on this choice.

3.3 Consonant System

3.3.1 Special Note: The Letter d and Regional Pronunciation

In cases where the letter d is used in all three languages, it is always written in its standard orthographic position, regardless of whether it is pronounced as a voiced dental fricative [ð], an alveolar stop [d], or a bilabial stop [t] in different regional variations. Regional variation is accepted and expected:

Danish speakers: May pronounce d as voiced dental fricative [ð], especially between vowels or word-finally. Norwegian speakers: Typically pronounce d as alveolar stop [d]. Swedish speakers: Typically pronounce d as [d], but may devoice to [t] in casual or final position.

3.3.2 Clarification: When to Use d vs t

The letter d is retained in words spelled with d across all or most source languages (e.g., mad, god, ved), with regional pronunciation accepted.

However, in lexical items where Norwegian and Swedish consistently use t and Danish uses d for the same meaning and morphological position (e.g., heter), Nordum adopts t to align with majority usage and pronunciation clarity.

This is a lexical selection decision, not a phonetic one. It ensures Nordum remains intuitive and recognizable to all users.

In cases where the letter t is used as the primary spelling for what is a [ð]-sound in Danish, it is a secondary option to spell it with d.

3.3.3 Special Spelling Rules for K/J/G/ Sounds

Rule 1: K-sound in Norwegian, J-sound in Danish → G spelling When Norwegian has a “k” sound and Danish has a “j” sound for the same morpheme, Nordum uses “g” spelling.

Examples:

• søke (Norwegian) / søge (Danish) → søge (search)
• tak (Norwegian) / tag (Danish) → tag (roof)

Rule 2: G-sound in Danish, J-sound in Norwegian → G spelling When Danish has a “g” sound and Norwegian has a “j” sound for the same morpheme, Nordum uses “g” spelling rather than “gj”.

Examples:

• genstand (Danish) / gjenstand (Norwegian) → genstand (object)
• gæst (Danish) / gjest (Norwegian) → gæst (guest)

Rule 3: Native Scandinavian words use “ks” instead of “x” For native Scandinavian words, Nordum uses “ks” spelling (as in Danish/Norwegian) instead of “x” (as in Swedish).

Examples:

• fiks (Danish/Norwegian) / fix (Swedish) → fiks (fix)
• maks (Danish/Norwegian) / max (Swedish) → maks (max)

Rule 4: [ç]-sound in Swedish/Norwegian, K-sound in Danish → K spelling When Swedish and Norwegian have a [ç]-sound and Danish has a “k”-sound for the same morpheme, Nordum uses “k” spelling (as in Danish/Swedish) rather than “kj” (as in Norwegian).

Examples:

• köra (Swedish) / kjøre (Norwegian) / køre (Danish) → køre (drive)
• köpa (Swedish) / kjøpe (Norwegian) / købe (Danish) → købe (buy)

Rule 5: Norwegian [ʃ]-sound spelled “skj” vs Danish [ks] pronunciation → “ks” spelling When Norwegian has a [ʃ]-sound spelled “skj” and Danish has a [ks] pronunciation for the same morpheme, Nordum uses “ks” spelling to align with Danish pronunciation and maintain consistency.

Examples:

• forskjell (Norwegian [fɔʂːɛl]) / forskel (Danish [fɒːsɡ̊l̩]) → forskel (difference)
• skjære (Norwegian [ʃæːrə]) / skære (Danish [sɡ̊ɛːɐ]) → skære (cut)
• skjorte (Norwegian [ʃuʈə]) / skjorte (Danish [sɡ̊oɐ̯d̥ə]) → skjorte (shirt) - Note: Danish retains “skj” spelling but pronounces as [sɡ̊]
• kald (Danish [kʰalˀ]) / kald (Norwegian [kɑlː]) → kald (cold)
• fuld (Danish [fulˀ]) / full (Norwegian [fʉlː]) → full (full)
• gammel (Danish [ˈɡ̊ɑmˀl̩]) / gammel (Norwegian [ˈɡɑmːəl]) → gammel (old)

Rationale: This rule specifically addresses cases where Norwegian palatalization creates a [ʃ] sound from “skj” combinations that correspond to [sk] or [sɡ̊] pronunciations in Danish. The “sk” spelling provides better pan-Scandinavian intelligibility, aligns with Danish pronunciation patterns, and follows the systematic approach of using phonetic clarity over etymological spelling. This is particularly important for words like “forskjell/forskel” where the Norwegian [ʃ] sound contrasts with Danish [sk].

Rule 6: Danish “ld” vs Norwegian “ll” pronunciation → “ll” spelling When Danish uses “ld” spelling but Norwegian uses “ll” spelling for the same morpheme with similar pronunciation, Nordum uses “ll” spelling to align with Norwegian orthography and pronunciation clarity.

Examples:

• kold (Danish) / kall (Norwegian) → koll/kall (cold)
• fuld (Danish) / full (Norwegian) → full (full)

Rationale: This rule addresses cases where Danish orthography uses “ld” but Norwegian uses “ll” for words with similar pronunciation. The “ll” spelling provides better phonetic transparency and aligns with Norwegian spelling patterns while remaining recognizable to Danish and Swedish speakers.

3.3.4 Preposition Spelling (Bokmål Pattern)

Prepositions in Nordum generally follow the Bokmål spelling pattern for consistency and mutual intelligibility. Exceptions occur where the spelling clashes with another rule.

Common Prepositions as in bokmål:

• i (in)
• på (on)
• fra (from)
• med (with)
• om (about)
• av (of)
• for (for)
• ved (by)
• over (over)
• under (under)
• mot (against)
• før (before)
• siden (since)
• uten (without)
• innen (within)

Exceptions:

• mellem (between)
• gennem (through)
• efter (after)
• till (to)

3.4 Special Combinations

3.5 Question Words (V- Pattern)

Rule: Eliminate silent H, use clear v- pattern with pronunciation variants.

Transformations:

            hvad/hva → vad/va (what)
            hvor → var (where)
            hvem → vem (who)
            hvorfor → varför/vorfor (why)
            hvilken → vilken (which)
            hvornår → ven/vornår/når/när (when)
            

Alternative Forms:

• va - Short form of vad (common in speech)
• vorfor - Norwegian/Danish pronunciation variant
• vornår - Full form variant (Danish hvornår → vornår)
• när - Swedish pronunciation variant
• når - Norwegian pronunciation variant

3.6 Sound Pattern Transformations

Sound Pattern Normalization:

• ej → ei: jeg → jei, vejr → veir, nej → nei (wherever the [ej] sound appears)
• aj → ei: maj → mei (wherever the [aj] sound appears, using ei instead of aj)
• øj → øi: høj → høi (wherever the [øj] sound appears, using øi instead of øj)
• øy → øi: høy → høi (wherever the [øy] sound appears, using øi instead of øy)

Both original and transformed forms accepted as alternatives. The normalized forms (ei, øi) are recommended for consistency and phonetic clarity, while traditional spellings (ej, øj, aj, øy) are preserved as valid alternatives for those accustomed to them.

4. Morphological System

4.1 Systematic Distinctions Principle

Core Innovation: Each grammatical category has distinctive endings to eliminate ambiguity and improve parsing.

4.2 Verb System

4.2.1 Present Tense: Always -er

Rule: All verbs in present tense end in -er, never -ar — except irregulars.

Rationale: Clear distinction from noun plurals which always end in -ar.

            Infinitive → Present
            arbeide → arbeider (work → works)
            snakke → snakker (speak → speaks)
            komme → kommer (come → comes)
            være → er (be → is)
            

Irregular Verbs:

• være → er
• ha → har
• gå → går

4.2.2 Complete Verb Paradigm

            Infinitive:        arbeide
            Present:           arbeider (systematic -er)
            Past (formal):     arbeidede (regular -ede)
            Past (informal):   arbeida (regular -a)
            Supine:            arbeidet (regular -et)
            Past Participle:   arbeidet (regular -et)
            Present Participle: arbeidende (-ende)
            Imperative:        arbeid! (stem form)
            

Note: -ede remains the primary form, but the shorter -a past (arbeida) is accepted as an optional secondary form, reflecting widespread Scandinavian colloquial use.

4.2.3 Infinitive Marker: Distinction between “å” and “att”

Principle: Nordum maintains a clear distinction between “å” (the infinitive marker) and “att” (the conjunction meaning “that”), similar to the Norwegian distinction between “å” and “at”.

Implementation:

• å: Used exclusively as the infinitive marker before verbs
• att: Used exclusively as the conjunction meaning “that”

Examples:

            Infinitive:        å arbeide (to work)
            Conjunction:       Jei vet att hun arbeider. (I know that she works.)
            
            Infinitive:        å snakke (to speak)
            Conjunction:       Hun sier att hun kan snakke nordum. (She says that she can speak Nordum.)
            
            Infinitive:        å lære (to learn)
            Conjunction:       Det er viktig att lære språket. (It is important to learn the language.)
            

Rationale: This distinction provides clarity and prevents ambiguity, especially for Norwegian speakers who are accustomed to the “å”/“at” distinction. It also aligns with the systematic approach of Nordum to maintain clear grammatical distinctions.

4.2.4 Swedish Verb Transformation

Swedish -ar verbs become -er in Nordum:

• arbeta → arbeide → arbeider
• tala → tale → snakker (strategic lexical selection)
• köra → køre → kører

4.3 Noun System

4.3.1 Plural: Usually -ar

Rule: Most noun plurals end in -ar. Common neuter nouns (hus, barn, øye, ben, år) are invariant. Rationale: Clear distinction from verb present tense which always ends in -er.

            Singular → Plural
            flikka → flikkar (girl → girls)
            jente → jentar (girl → girls)
            hus → husar (house → houses - also accepted: hus)
            barn → barnar (child → children - also accepted: barn/børn)
            

4.3.2 Complete Noun Inflection

Common Gender (en-words):

            Indefinite singular:  flikka
            Definite singular:    flikkan
            Indefinite plural:    flikkar
            Definite plural:      flikkarna
            

            Indefinite singular:  jente
            Definite singular:    jenten
            Indefinite plural:    jentar
            Definite plural:      jentarna
            

            Indefinite singular:  pije (Danish: pige)
            Definite singular:    pijen
            Indefinite plural:    pijar
            Definite plural:      pijarna
            

Neuter Gender (ett-words):

            Indefinite singular:  hus
            Definite singular:    huset
            Indefinite plural:    husar (also accepted: hus - irregular)
            Definite plural:      husarna
            

4.3.3 Gender System (Simplified)

Common Gender (en):

• Animates (people, animals)
• Most concrete objects
• Abstract concepts ending in -het, -skap

Neuter Gender (ett):

• Collective nouns
• Materials and substances
• Infinitives used as nouns
• Words ending in -ande, -ende

4.4 Adjective System

4.4.1 Comparative: Always -ere

            Positive → Comparative → Superlative
            stor → større → størst (big → bigger → biggest)
            liten → mindre → mindst (small → smaller → smallest)
            god → bedre → bedst (good → better → best)
            

4.4.2 Adjective Agreement

            Positive Forms:
            Common:    stor bil (big car)
            Neuter:    stort hus (big house)
            Plural:    store bilar (big cars)
            Definite:  den store bilen (the big car)
            

4.5 Morphological Examples

4.5.1 Clear Grammatical Distinctions

            arbeider (verb) = "works" (present tense -er)
            arbeidere (noun) = "workers" (if this word existed, -ere ending)
            jentar (noun plural) = "girls" (-ar ending)
            større (adj comparative) = "bigger" (-ere ending)
            størst (adj superlative) = "biggest" (-est ending)
            

4.5.2 Sentence Analysis

            De store jentar arbeider i huset.
            The big girls work in the house.
            
            Analysis:
            - de = definite article (plural)
            - store = adjective plural (-e ending)
            - jentar = noun plural (-ar ending)
            - arbeider = verb present (-er ending)
            - i = preposition
            - huset = definite neuter (-et ending)
            

4.6 Pronoun System

Principle: Personal pronouns are standardized to forms that maximize pan-Scandinavian intelligibility and consistency, following the lexical selection rules outlined in Section 5.2.

4.6.1 Personal Pronouns

The standard forms of personal pronouns in Nordum are as follows:

Notes and Explanations:

• Subject and Object Forms: The object forms are used when the pronoun is the object of a verb or preposition. For example: “Jei ser dei” (I see you), “Hun jælper mig” (She helps me).
• Possessive Forms: Possessive adjectives modify nouns (e.g., “min bil” for “my car”), while possessive pronouns stand alone (e.g., “Bilen er min” for “The car is mine”). The forms agree with the gender and number of the noun they reference:
  • min (common gender singular), mitt (neuter gender singular), mina (plural).
  • Similarly for din, vår, er, etc.
• Intelligibility Considerations: The forms chosen are based on majority usage across Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish. For example:
  • jei is derived from Norwegian/Danish jeg with the [ej] → ei transformation.
  • mei/dei is derived from Danish/Swedish mig/dig with the [ej] → ei transformation.
  • ni for the second person plural subject is adopted from Swedish and is widely understood in Danish and Norwegian contexts.
  • er for the second person plural object is from Swedish, and is recognizable to Norwegian and Danish speakers.

4.6.2 Reflexive Pronouns

Principle: Reflexive pronouns are used when the subject and object of a verb are the same entity. Nordum standardizes these forms for clarity and consistency across all persons, except the 1st and 2nd person plural which often use the possessive adjective reflexively.

Notes and Explanations:

• Standardization: The forms mei, dei, and sei are chosen for their high intelligibility across all three source languages (cf. Norwegian meg/deg/seg, Danish mig/dig/sig, Swedish mig/dig/sig).
• Sei for 3rd Person: The pronoun sei is used for all third-person singular and plural reflexive contexts, identical to the pattern in Norwegian and Danish.
• Possessive vs. Reflexive in 1st/2nd Plural: Note the distinction:
  • Vår/er is used as a possessive adjective (our car, your book).
  • Oss selv/er selv is the reflexive form used with prepositions (for ourselves, of yourselves). The form selv (self) is added for emphasis and clarity, following Scandinavian patterns.
• Ambiguity Avoidance: The systematic use of sei prevents confusion that can arise from the Swedish use of sig (reflexive) vs. deras (non-reflexive, their).

4.6.3 Examples in Sentences

• Subject: “Ni arbeider her” (You work here).
• Object: “Jei ser er” (I see you all).
• Possessive Adjective: “Vår bil er rød” (Our car is red).
• Possessive Pronoun: “Computerene er våra” (The computers are ours).
• Reflexive: “De må vaske sei selv” (They must wash themselves).

This standardization ensures clarity and reduces ambiguity in written Nordum, aligning with the design principles of mutual intelligibility and systematic regularity.

5. Lexical Selection Rules

5.1 Selection Priority System

When variants exist across Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish:

1. English loanword detection → preserve unchanged
2. Norwegian number system → apply systematic replacement
3. Question word transformation → hv→v pattern with alternatives
4. Strategic pan-Scandinavian selection → optimize for mutual intelligibility
5. Alternative spelling generation → accommodate pronunciation variants
6. Morphological systematization → apply distinctive endings

5.2 Cognate Analysis Process

5.2.1 Perfect Cognates

Words identical across all three languages:

            hus (house) - unanimous form adopted directly
            bil (car) - unanimous form adopted directly
            

5.2.2 Near Cognates

Minor spelling differences resolved systematically:

            arbeta/arbeide/arbejde → arbeide (systematic morphology + strategic selection)
            liten/lille/liten → liten (majority form with regular inflection preferred, lille is accepted)
            

5.2.3 Divergent Forms

When all three languages differ in spelling, prefer most systematic and secondly the form that maximizes mutual intelligibility and matches majority pronunciation:

            Swedish: kör, Norwegian: kjøre, Danish: køre → køre (systematic + majority)
            Swedish: talar, Norwegian: snakker, Danish: snakker/taler → taler/snakker (systematic + majority)
            Danish: hedder, Norwegian: heter, Swedish: heter → heter (majority form, clearer pronunciation alignment)
            Danish: ikke, Norwegian: ikke, Swedish: inte → ikke (majority form, preserves Danish/Norwegian unity)
            

Note: In cases where Danish uses d for [ð] but Norwegian/Swedish use t for the same morpheme (e.g., hedder/heter), Nordum selects t to align with majority spelling and avoid forcing non-native pronunciations on Norwegian/Swedish speakers. This does not contradict the general d-pronunciation rule — it reflects lexical selection for optimal intelligibility.

5.3 Frequency and Usage Considerations

Weighting System:

• Common vocabulary: Higher priority for systematic forms
• Technical terms: Preserve English where established
• Regional variants: Support through alternative spellings
• Historical forms: Modernize systematically

5.4 Quality Scoring

Each lexical decision scored on:

• Mutual intelligibility: 0-1 scale across three languages
• Systematic regularity: Adherence to morphological patterns
• Practical utility: Modern usage and learnability
• Pan-Scandinavian balance: Equal treatment of source languages

5.5 Multiple Accepted Words Policy

Principle: When vocabulary differs significantly across Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish, Nordum accepts multiple words for the same concept to maximize mutual intelligibility and accommodate regional preferences.

Implementation:

• Words from all three languages are accepted as valid alternatives
• No single “correct” form is enforced for divergent vocabulary
• Users can choose the form most familiar to them
• Context determines which form provides optimal communication

Examples:

• Girl: jente (Norwegian), pije (from Danish), flikka (from Swedish) → all accepted
• Speak: snakke (Norwegian/Danish), tale (from all three) → both accepted
• Work: arbeide (Norwegian/Danish), arbete (Swedish) → both accepted
• Buy: køpe (from Norwegian/Swedish), købe (Danish) → all accepted

Rationale: This policy recognizes that Scandinavian languages have significant lexical variation and that forcing a single form would reduce intelligibility for speakers of the other languages. By accepting multiple forms, Nordum maintains its core philosophy of equal respect for all three source languages while maximizing practical utility.

5.6 Treatment of Geographic Names

Principle: Geographic place names (toponyms) shall, as a default, retain their most common endonym (name used within that place) to promote international recognition and neutrality, following the precedent set by modern Norwegian. A limited set of well-established exonyms (locally used names for foreign places) is permitted.

5.6.1 General Rule: Use of Endonyms

The primary name for a country, region, or major city should be its common endonym, not a Scandinavian exonym.

Examples:

• Argentina (not Argentinien)
• Hellas (not Grækenland)
• España (not Spanien)
• Italia (not Italien)
• Nederland (not Holland)
• Deutschland (primary form, see exception below)
• Praha (not Prag)
• Bruxelles (not Bryssel)

5.6.2 Permitted Exonyms

A short list of common, pan-Scandinavian exonyms are permitted as official alternatives. The most notable exceptions are:

• Tyskland (as an accepted alternative to Deutschland)
• Østerrike (for Österreich)

5.6.3 Historical and Regional Variants

For places with multiple valid historical names or names that vary by Scandinavian dialect, multiple forms are acceptable. This often applies to regions with shared cultural history.

Examples:

• Slesvig or Schleswig
• Flensborg or Flensburg
• Hamborg or Hamburg
• København (primary) or Kjøbenhavn (alternative)
• Göteborg (endonym) / Gøteborg (Danish/Nordum primary) / Gothenburg

Policy: The choice between endonyms, permitted exonyms, or historical variants is considered an orthographic preference and has no grammatical consequences. Consistency within a single text is encouraged.

6. Syntax

6.1 Word Order

6.1.1 Main Clauses (V2 Rule)

Basic: Subject + Verb + Object

            Jei læser en bok/bog.
            I read a book.
            

V2 with adverbial: Adverbial + Verb + Subject + …

            I dag arbeider jei jemme/hemma.
            Today I work at home.
            

6.1.2 Subordinate Clauses

Pattern: Conjunction + Subject + Verb + …

            Jei vet att hun arbeider.
            I know that she works.
            

6.1.3 Questions

Yes/No Questions: Verb + Subject + …

            Arbeider du i dag?
            Do you work today?
            

Wh-Questions: Question word + Verb + Subject + …

            Vor/var arbeider du? (Where do you work?)
            Vad/va gør du? (What do you do?)
            Vem kommer? (Who is coming?)
            

6.2 Negation

Main Clauses: ikke after finite verb

            Jei arbeider ikke.
            I don't work.
            
            Hun kan ikke komme.
            She can't come.
            

Subordinate Clauses: ikke before main verb

            Jei vet att hun ikke arbeider.
            I know that she doesn't work.
            

6.3 Article System

Examples:

            en bil → bilen → bilar → bilarna
            ett hus → huset → husar → husarna
            den store bilen (the big car)
            det store huset (the big house)
            

Preserved: option of using indefinite versions with den/det:

            den store bil (the big car)
            det store hus (the big house)
            

7. Alternative Spellings

7.1 Vowel System Alternatives

Philosophy: Support both Scandinavian vowel traditions as valid alternatives.

Primary System (Norwegian/Danish):

• Uses æ, ø following Norwegian and Danish orthographic tradition
• Familiar to Norwegian and Danish speakers
• Traditional Scandinavian appearance

Alternative System (Swedish/German):

• Uses ä, ö following Swedish and German orthographic tradition
• Familiar to Swedish speakers and German language learners
• International Germanic appearance

Examples:

            Primary:     Alternative:
            hæst        häst (horse)
            døra        döra (door)
            grønnsaker  grönsaker (vegetables)
            brød        bröd (bread)
            høj         höj (high)
            

7.2 Question Word Alternatives

Multiple valid forms to accommodate regional pronunciation:

            Primary → Alternatives
            vad     → va (short form, common in speech)
            varför  → vorfor (Norwegian/Danish pronunciation)
            ven     → vornår, når, när (multiple "when" variants)
            

Rationale: Recognizes that different Scandinavian speakers pronounce question words differently, providing flexibility while maintaining the systematic v- pattern.

7.3 Sound Pattern Alternatives

Danish Sound Pattern Support:

            Normalized: Preserved Alternative:
            jei        jeg (Danish ej pattern)
            vær       vejr (Danish ej pattern)
            nei        nej (Danish ej pattern)
            

Both forms accepted: Speakers can choose between normalized (phonetic) and traditional (etymological) spellings.

7.4 Alternative Spelling Policy

Implementation Principles:

1. Morphological consistency preserved: Alternative spellings don’t affect grammatical endings
2. Recognition over production: All forms recognized, one form recommended for learning
3. Regional accommodation: Reflects natural pronunciation differences
4. Systematic application: Alternatives generated systematically, not ad-hoc
5. User choice: Individuals can choose preferred spelling system

8. Examples and Usage

8.1 Basic Sentences

            Jei arbeider i Stockholm.
            I work in Stockholm.
            
            De store jentar snakker nordum.
            The big girls speak Nordum.
            
            Kan du jælpe mig?
            Can you help me?
            
            Vi skal køpe en ny computer.
            We will buy a new computer.
            
            Vi gamer hele natta.
            We game all night.
            
            Hun streamer på Twitch.
            She streams on Twitch.
            
            De sender memes i chatten.
            They send memes in the chat.
            
            Han spiller e-sport turnering på helga/i weekenden.
            He plays an e-sports tournament on the weekend.
            
            Vi chatter og lager/laver content på TikTok.
            We chat and create content on TikTok.
            
            Jei vil å lære nordum.
            I want to learn Nordum.
            
            Det er lett å snakke språket.
            It is easy to speak the language.
            
            Hun begynte å arbeide i går.
            She began to work yesterday.
            
            Vi skal prøve å skrive en email.
            We will try to write an email.
            
            De liker å game om kvelden.
            They like to game in the evening.
            

8.2 Alternative Spelling Examples

Using Primary Vowels (æ/ø):

            Jei køber/køper en hæst till døren.
            I buy a horse for the door.
            
            Å køpe en ny computer er viktig.
            To buy a new computer is important.
            
            Det er gøy å lære nordum.
            It is fun to learn Nordum.
            

Using Alternative Vowels (ä/ö):

            Jei köber/köper en häst till dören.
            I buy a horse for the door.
            
            Å köpe en ny computer er viktig.
            To buy a new computer is important.
            
            Det är göy å läre nordum.
            It is fun to learn Nordum.
            

Using Question Word Variants:

            Vad/Va gør du?
            What do you do?
            
            Varfør/Vorfor kommer du?
            Why are you coming?
            

8.3 Technical Communication

English Loanword Integration:

            Jei arbeider med software development på min computer.
            I work with software development on my computer.
            
            Kan du sende en email till teamet?
            Can you send an email to the team?
            
            Vi skal downloade den nye app fra websitet.
            We will download the new app from the website.
            

8.4 Morphological Distinctions in Context

Verb vs Noun Plural:

            Kvinnan arbeider. (The woman works - VERB)
            Jentar arbeider hær. (Girls work here - NOUN + VERB)
            

Adjective Comparison:

            Huset er stort. (The house is big)
            Huset er større æn bilen. (The house is bigger than the car)
            Det er det største huset. (It is the biggest house)
            

8.5 Numbers in Context

            Jei er femti år gammel. (I am fifty years old)
            Vi har seksti studenter. (We have sixty students)
            Hun bor på syttiende gatan. (She lives on seventieth street)
            

8.6 Comprehensive Text Example

            I dag arbeider de store jentar i huset med sina nya computere.
            De snakker nordum mykket bra och kann skrive email på språket.
            Varfør lærer de nordum? Fordi det er en praktisk språk for alla skandinavere.
            Vad tykker du om det?
            
            Today the big girls work in the house with their new computers.
            They speak Nordum very well and can write email in the language.
            Why do they learn Nordum? Because it is a practical language for all Scandinavians.
            What do you think about it?
            

Alternative Spelling Version:

            I dag arbeider de stora jäntar i huset med sina nya computere.
            De snakker nordum mykket bra og kann skrive email på språket.
            Vorfor lærer de nordum? Fordi det er ett praktisk språk for alle skandinavare.
            Va tykker du om det?
            

9. Key Differences for native speakers

9.1 Norwegian Writers

• Past tense forms: arbeidede may feel Danish/archaic; optional arbeida is closer to spoken Norwegian.
• Plural forms of nouns: jentar may look odd initially.
• Articles: Bound definite suffixes (-en, -et) function much like Bokmål, but plural definite -arna differs from Norwegian -ene.
• Question words: va, vor, når instead of Norwegian hva, hvor, når.
• English loanwords: computer and internet rather than datamaskin and internett.

9.2 Danish Writers

• Numbers: Uses sytti, åtti, nitti instead of Danish halvfjerds, firs, halvfems.
• Past tense: arbeidede matches Danish well, but optional arbeida reflects Norwegian/Swedish youth usage.
• Plural forms: flikkar/jentar/pijar vs Danish piger; expect more -ar endings than in Danish.
• Question words: va, vorfor, vornår instead of Danish hvad, hvorfor, hvornår.
• Double consonants: Are allowed even at the end of words for consistency. So katt, skakk instead of kat, skak. Note: The conjunction “att” (meaning “that”) is spelled with double t to distinguish it from the infinitive marker “å”.
• Some cases of [ð] will always spelled with d while others will have a primary spelling with t (flod vs heter). These are not always consistent with Danish pronounciation as Norwegian/Swedish pronounciation determine which spelling is used. Spelling with d is allowed as a secondary option when t is the primary spelling.

9.3 Swedish Writers

• Present tense verbs: Always -er (e.g. arbeider) instead of Swedish -ar (arbetar).
• Plural forms: pijar, jentar or flikkar instead of Swedish flickor.
• Definite plural suffix: -arna is familiar but may appear after unfamiliar stems.
• Numbers: sytti, åtti, nitti instead of Swedish sjuttio, åttio, nittio.
• Question words: va, var, varfor, när—close to Swedish but even Dansih/Norwegian versions may appear (vor, vorfor, når).
• English loanwords: computer and cool rather than dator and kul.
• kk instead of ck

10 Version Control

Semantic Versioning Implementation:

• Current version: MAJOR.MINOR.PATCH+timestamp format
• Change tracking: Complete changelog with rationale
• Breaking change identification: Clear version increment rules
• Release stability: Production-ready version management

Document Version: 0.9.1 Last Updated: 2025-09-19 Status: Complete Linguistic Reference Language Version: Nordum 0.9.0+production

This specification serves as the authoritative reference for the Nordum pan-Scandinavian language, covering all linguistic features, rules, and usage patterns. For technical implementation details, build systems, and development information, see the project README.md and developer documentation.